Storytelling has long been a part of the human experience, shifting and evolving to fit our cultural context over time. Histories (including revisionist histories) have been passed down through scrolls and textbooks, the oral tradition, newspapers, and thanks to the introduction of newfangled technologies, television, the airwaves, and more recently, social media. With the seemingly endless amount of content brought on by the latest political scandals, war coverage, mass shootings, economic turmoil, and human interest features, journalists and reporters often serve as the storytellers we rely upon the most. Those who work within the news industry is tasked with a demanding role, one that requires equal parts accuracy, engagement, and tactful storytelling. The benefit of the free American press is that there is great freedom with what can be published. But this also comes with great responsibility. Journalists and news photographers are often the unsung heroes, the deliverers of tragic events, and the ones ultimately responsible for determining what the public sees during the coverage of a significant event or social issue. This is particularly compelling given the negativity bias cycle of ‘bad news,’ and the news industry’s reliance on it to keep business going. The age-old question, “How come reporters only report on bad news?” is an interesting one, especially in light of a political climate where “fake news” is often used as a catchall term for all news stories. According to David Campbell, author of Medium article “Why it’s time for visual journalism to include a solutions focus,” readers largely tend to focus on negative news, remembering the details of those stories more so than that of ‘good news.’ In fact, Campbell’s article concludes that in 2015, BBC News found that 19 of the 20 top stories were high-impact, negative news stories. Daniel McDermon, a writer for New York Times, believes that when it comes to storytelling, one should focus on what an audience will glean from coverage. He writes, “…the relationship between an audience and a storyteller goes two ways. You have to consider who is listening, and your own motivations, to find the right approach.” Take, for example, the haunting image of “The Falling Man” the New York Times published in the aftermath of 9/11. The photo was certainly an accurate representation of the horrors faced by the nearly 3,000 victims who were killed inside the World Trade Center. Was the publication doing its due diligence to report the truth? Yes. Did the image accurately convey the tragedy of the day’s terrorist attack? Also yes. But a follow-up question that perhaps has no ‘right’ answer is, was the photo too controversial? While the Falling Man was never officially identified, it is an image that prospective families of the victim will never be able to erase from their minds. Given the tough choices journalists, photographers, and editors must make every day regarding the publication of certain types of subject matter, content, visuals, and rhetoric, it is important to think about what it all comes down to – the intent and impact of a story. Storytellers, whether they are professional journalists, authors, or smartphone-wielding civilians, should be encouraged to think about the following ethics questions: 1. Is the weight of the story more important than the potential impact it can have on viewers? 2. How can one pursue more responsible, solutions-oriented coverage? and 3. How can photo manipulation or over-editing detract from the story as a whole? 1. Prioritizing Ethical Storytelling Over Shock Value Most major news organizations, such as NPR, live by a code of ethics that guides their journalists towards ethical storytelling. NPR’s Ethics Handbook, which can be found on their website, asserts their commitment to respect for those impacted by their work. NPR stipulates, “Everyone affected by our journalism deserves to be treated with decency and compassion...We minimize undue harm and take special care with those who are vulnerable or suffering. With subjects of our coverage, we are mindful of their privacy as we fulfill our journalistic obligations.” Their determination to be informative while abiding by ethical guidelines is noble, but does not always play out in practice. In fact, there have been many instances in photojournalism history when the weight of a story took precedence over the potentially traumatic impact they would have on viewers. Previously, the example of “The Falling Man” was used to highlight the power compelling imagery can have on a story. Going further back into American history, we can look back to one of the most famous examples of iconic journalistic photography – and controversy. Associated Press photographer Nick Ut’s 1972 photograph of the nine-year-old “Napalm girl” taken in 1972 during the Vietnam War. In it, she and other South Vietnamese children are shown fleeing the area of a napalm attack. Although some people and groups, including then-president Richard Nixon questioned the authenticity of the photograph, and while the New York Times staff considered not publishing the photo at all, it has since won a Pulitzer Prize and worldwide recognition. So striking was the Napalm Girl image, that the photo has been used as part of other visual works, such as the following artwork by Banksy. On the one hand, journalists and other storytellers have an obligation to share some of history’s darkest moments, while respecting the lives of those being highlighted. Medium writer Campbell (referenced earlier in this essay) believes that “One of the things that must be done in any discussion about the relationship between images and action is to understand that pictures, by themselves, do not change the world.” Campbell also references The Open Society’s take on documentary/photojournalism photography, which states that images have the potential to bring light to stories that otherwise might not capture worldwide attention and have the power to work hand-in-hand with people and activist groups who are already pursuing solutions to systemic issues such as the ones that may be highlighted in certain stories: “Tackling systemic issues,” Campbell’s articles states, “such as corruption and discrimination, is complex work that involves multiple actors and years of organizing, advocacy, or litigation. We believe that photographers can be more effective when connecting to those who are already working towards change in an ongoing way.” Whether or not the “Napalm Girl” photograph should have been published at all due to its graphic nature, nudity and violence, it can be argued that it did shed deeper insight onto what was going on in the war overseas and the irreversible damage the war had on the Vietnamese population and overall American morale. More recently, a photo published in 2012 in the New York Post depicting a man struggling to climb out of subway tracks as a train heads towards him sparked controversy. According to the New York Post story, 58-year-old Ki Suk Han had been pushed onto the Times Square subway tracks by a panhandler. Although R. Umar Abbasi, the freelance photographer who had taken the harrowing image of Han in the moments before he was struck by the oncoming train, claimed he had flashed his camera numerous times in an attempt to alert the train conductor to stop, the train could not slow down in time, and Han was killed. “What Abbasi did in those fleeting seconds made him the target of outraged criticism in social media,” Gene Foreman writes in his book, “The Ethical Journalist: Making Responsible Decisions in the Digital Age.” “Abbasi’s critics argued that he should have put the camera down and tried to help [the victim] get back on the platform…The Post’s choice of photograph and caption provoked criticism both on social media and in professional photojournalism circles” (Foreman, 2015, p. 364). While it may be argued that there was not much Abbasi nor the other bystanders could have done to save Han, the Post’s choice of headlining photo is questionable at best. Unlike “The Falling Man” photo the New York Times had published, the victim in this story was identified and will always be remembered in his most vulnerable state – being caught in the wrong place at the wrong time, with mere seconds separating him from death. Ultimately, it is up to the writer or photographer to determine whether an image does indeed enhance the overall mission of a story. The objective, first and foremost, should always be to inform and engage the readers (versus providing the most shock value), as well as compelling audiences to think about ways certain tragedies can be avoided in the future. 2. Storytelling for Solutions So how can we go about more responsible storytelling? We certainly see examples of irresponsible ‘storytelling’ every day through paparazzi photos, Tweets that were composed without much thought, and even simple gossip. Perhaps it is best to consider how not to go about story-sharing. A prime example comes from the following 2017 story from NPR. A Swedish aid worker was the subject of scrutiny after she posted the following photo of herself embracing a Kenyan girl and a controversial caption to social media, which many accused of perpetuating a ‘white savior’ tone. In her post, she compares her own fortunate circumstances to the young girl’s, predicting that the girl would one day “sell her body to earn money” and live alone with her child in a small house made of mud and trees. Youth missions, volunteer trips, or other similar ventures are common, and so is posting about them. But often times, many of the posts will include photos that may show a person receiving medical treatment, or a more self-serving visual of volunteers being embraced the young children they’ve come to help. This can intentionally or unintentionally put the photographer on a pedestal, rather than highlighting some of the issues faced by the demographic they seek to help. Secondly, it is often the case that the photos were taken without consent of the subjects involved, which is especially problematic where minors’ privacy is concerned. In the case of volunteer work and its ties with social media, Christina Haslebacher, Peter Varga, and Hilary Catherine Murphy concluded in their 2019 study “Insights from images posted on social media: Examining the motivations of volunteer tourists” determine that the intention of social media users and their posts of their volunteer work can negatively impact the work itself. They conclude, “If volunteers do, in fact, travel for egoistic purposes and publish pictures online to showcase their humanitarianism, it could be contributing to the risks associated with volunteer tourism. This raises the question of whether the social validation of volunteering and posting pictures online can be aligned with the potential benefits of volunteer tourism, or whether the exact opposite occurs.” In a similar vein, authors Harng Luh Sin and Shirleen He write in their study, “Voluntouring on Facebook and Instagram: Photography and social media in constructing the ‘Third World’ experience” that due to the growing popularity of social media platforms and sharing websites, the line between ethical and unethical photography practices have become blurred. The authors argue, “…the ease of sharing photographs accentuates and stirs up the unequal relations between the photographer and the photographed…here, the very act of using photographs of children in development-oriented NGOs to bring attention to human suffering and possibly work towards alleviating poverty and suffering is in itself paradoxical as it instead reinforces a paternal logic of a superior global North as compared to an inferior global South.” Some simple rules of thumb to follow in situations like the above where ethics, consent, and fear of perpetuating stereotypes come into play are 1. considering the objective of posting or publishing the photo is and asking if it will cause undue harm to the subject(s), 2. receiving permission from the photo subject(s) to publish it, and 3. being wary of any language that could come across as offensive to the people a volunteer is aiding. 3. How Manipulation Can Harm a Story Sophie J. Nightingale, Kimberley A. Wade, and Derrick G. Watson, authors of the Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications article “Can people identify original and manipulated photos of real-world scenes?” argue that most people do not have the ability to detect whether a “real-world” image has been digitally altered or not. Nightingale, Wade, and Watson write, “In the digital age, the availability of powerful, low-cost editing software means that the creation of visually compelling photographic fakes is growing at an incredible speed … the question of whether people can identify when images have been manipulated and what has been manipulated in the images of real-world scenes remains unanswered.” In fact, some journalists can be blamed for making the line between reality and fiction harder to distinguish. The authors of a 2015 Oxford University study concluded that photographers who did manipulate their photos in some way did so because they viewed their assignments as more artistic, portrait work than raw, authentic photojournalism. They write, “There is an important gap between codes of ethics that prohibit staging and what happens in the field.” Although a few edits to color and lighting may not seem to be a huge sin, darkening the smoke brought on by Israeli war planes in Lebanon - thereby making the damage look worse than it was in reality - resulted in the firing of a freelance Reuters photographer. In the following 1989 image, TV Guide similarly was put into hot water for photoshopping Oprah’s head onto the body of actress Anne Margaret’s body, without the consent or permission of Margaret or her dress designer. In both these situations, the authenticity of the stories were questioned because of seemingly small tweaks to the original photographs. And as most of us are already aware, the manipulation of photos is a practice prevalent in the health, beauty, and fitness industries. Proficient Photoshop experts will know how to change skin tone, eliminate blemishes and stretch marks, and even change eye color if it increases the sell-ability of certain products. In the following image of pop songstress Britney Spears, we can see that she was already stunning before, but her image was nonetheless still manipulated to make her appear even more desirable. However, with more body-positive messages being created by the marketing minds behind companies like Dove, Aerie, and Playtex, it would seem that the shift towards more authentic storytelling is becoming more of the norm. Parting Thoughts “Stories,” writes public relations expert Michael L. Kent, in his essay, “The power of storytelling in public relations: Introducing the 20 master plots,” “have the power to inform, persuade, elicit emotional responses, build support for coalitions and initiatives, and build civil society.”
Even if one is not a professional journalist by trade, having the opportunity to wield a pen, camera, or even just an iPhone can be enough to put one in a powerful position as storyteller. It is also a position of great responsibility, one that requires wisdom, discretion, and a true ability to understand and empathize with those whose stories we seek to share, as well as those we choose to share them with. It is not always easy to discern whether a story should be shared or not, and in what way. But by looking inward and determining the intention behind our actions, doing no harm, and letting the story speak for itself without additional embellishment, we’ll have added powerful contributions to the story of the human experience. Works Cited Banksy Editions Guide. Banksy. Can't Beat The Feeling. Screen Print, 56 X 76 Cm. 2004.. 2004. Web. 4 Mar. 2018. Campbell, D. (2018, January 22). Why it’s time for visual journalism to include a solutions focus. Retrieved October 13, 2019, from https://witness.worldpressphoto.org/why-it-is-time-for-visual-journalism-to-include-a-solutions-focus-5be15aec3afc. (MODULE 5) Conley, K., & Abassi, U. R. (2012, December 4). Suspect confesses in pushing death of Queens dad in Times Square subway station. New York Post. Retrieved from https://nypost.com/2012/12/04/suspect-confesses-in-pushing-death-of-queens-dad-in-times-square-subway-station/ Foreman, G. (2015, June 2). The Ethical Journalist: Making Responsible Decisions in the Digital Age. Language Arts & Disciplines. Gharib, M. (2018, March 22). Woman's Instagram Post About Kenyan Child Ignites Fury. NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/03/22/596002482/womans-instagram-post-about-kenyan-child-ignites-fury Hajj, A. (n.d.). Smoke billows from burning buildings destroyed during an overnight Israeli air raid on Beirut’s suburbs. August 5, 2006. Many buildings were flattened during the attack. photograph. Haslebacher, C., Varga, P., & Murphy, H.C. (2019, February 20). Insights from images posted on social media: Examining the motivations of volunteer tourists. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism. Retrieved October 13, 2019, from https://www-tandfonline-com.libraryproxy.quinnipiac.edu/doi/full/10.1080/15332845.2019.1558490 Kent, M.L. (2015, November). The power of storytelling in public relations: Introducing the 20 master plots. Public Relations Review. Retrieved October 13, 2019, from https://www-sciencedirect-com.libraryproxy.quinnipiac.edu/science/article/pii/S0363811115000570 Kleinfield, N. R., & Drew, R. (2001, September 12). A Creeping Horror: Buildings Burn and Fall as Onlookers Search for Elusive Safety. New York Times, pp. A1–A7. McDermon, D. How to Tell a Story. Retrieved October 12, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/guides/smarterliving/how-to-tell-a-good-story NPR Ethics Handbook. (n.d.). Retrieved September 29, 2019, from https://www.npr.org/ethics. (MODULE 4) Nightingale, S. J., Wade, K. A., & Watson, D. G. (2017, July 18). Can people identify original and manipulated photos of real-world scenes? Cognitive Research Journal. Retrieved October 8, 2019, from http://cognitiveresearchjournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41235-017-0067-2. (MODULE 7) Oprah! The Richest Woman on TV? (1989, August). TV Guide, 1–2. Staging, Manipulation and Truth in Photography. (2015, October 16). New York Times. Retrieved from https://lens.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/10/16/staging-manipulation-ethics-photos/# (MODULE 4) Sin, H.L., He, S. (2018, November 28). Voluntouring on Facebook and Instagram: Photography and social media in constructing the ‘Third World’ experience. Tourist Studies. Retrieved October 13, 2019, from https://journals-sagepub-com.libraryproxy.quinnipiac.edu/doi/10.1177/1468797618815043 Ut, N. (n.d.). Napalm Girl. Photograph. Woodward, E. (2014, May 21). The Most WTF Celebrity Photoshop Fails Of All Time. Retrieved September 29, 2019, from https://www.buzzfeed.com/elliewoodward/the-most-wtf-celebrity-photoshop-fails-of-all-time. *All other photos were from Unsplash (an alternative to iStock)*
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